The beginning of wisdom is a definition of terms.
(Greek philosopher Socrates 470–399 BC)
One definition for the word “definition” is a statement expressing the essential nature of something; that explains the meaning of a word, phrase or symbol. Definitions are fundamental in language, logic, science, law and mathematics, where they help establish precise meanings and build foundational knowledge.
Clarification of terms prevents misunderstandings before they happen. Don’t assume your definition for key or ambiguous words or phrases matches the definition of another. Make certain! Only when both parties attach roughly the same meaning to the words used can there be true communication.
Definitions are important!
Within Christendom, there is much specialized terminology. Within sects, denominations and churches, there is Christian jargon (Christianese) and in the 2×2 church, there is special jargon (Truthspeak). There are many theological words and terms that 2x2s have not been exposed to, and may have no, little, or incorrect understanding about. Perhaps these brief definitions will be helpful and informative.
Belief/Belief System: A belief is something that is accepted as true; something that one trusts and has faith or confidence in. A set of beliefs is a called a belief system.
Religion is the belief in and worship of a supernatural controlling power, especially a god or gods; a belief system and worship. The word religion is frequently used incorrectly. The word religion should be reserved for a distinct system of beliefs and practices (worship & life) that share some common fundamental features that make them stand apart from other World Religions. All religions are belief systems, and most, if not all, have systems within their belief system.
World Religions: Refers to transcultural, international faiths. The twelve major world religions are (in alpha order): Baha’i, Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism. Obviously, the 2x2s’s religion is Christianity.
Wikipedia World Map showing Prevailing World Religions:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prevailing_world_religions_map.png
Many incorrectly refer to particular Christian denominations, sects or cults, as religions. Christian churches (Lutheran, Presbyterian, Baptist, etc.) are not religions—they are denominations within the World Religion of Christianity. The Two by Twos are sometimes erroneously referred to as a religion.
Religious: Used as an adjective, the word religious may be used to describe many things in many contexts, e.g. a very religious person; religious about wearing a seat belt; a religious holiday. Synonyms are meticulous, conscientious, reverent, faithful, careful, consistent, etc.
Secular describes things that are not spiritual; that is, they relate more to the physical world than the spiritual world. The word also carries the closely related meaning of not religious (worldly)
Monotheism isthe belief in a single God. Christianity is a Monotheistic religion (one God). Polytheism is the belief in many gods (paganism). Atheism is the belief there is no god. The foundational declaration of monotheism is: Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one, (Deut. 6:4) affirmed by Jesus in Mark 12:29.
Christianity is not a denomination or a sect—it is a World Religion. The descent of the Holy Spirit in 33 A.D. at Pentecost (Acts 2) is considered the birth of the World Religion of Christianity.
Christianity is a RELIGION broadly split into three branches:
1) Eastern Orthodox Church (claims they began in 33 AD).
2) Roman Catholic Church (est. 315 AD by Constantine), aka Western Catholicism, RCC.
NOTE: The Great Schism: While Eastern Orthodox share history with Catholicism for a millennium, the formal split between Eastern and Western branches solidified in 1054 AD.
3) Protestantism was a major schism/breakaway from the Roman Catholic Church, calledThe Protestant Reformation. The widely accepted starting point was when Martin Luther, a German RCC monk, distributed his 95 Theses in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, 1517. Within Protestantism, there are thousands of distinct denominations, independent churches, sects, cults and new religious movements (NRMs)—these are not religions—they are divisions within Christianity. Protestants are all Christians who are NOT Roman Catholic or Eastern Orthodox.
Christendom: Isthe collective, worldwide body of all Christians ever—the Christian world. All three branches of Christianity make up Christendom. Becoming a believer in Christ makes one a member of the universal Christian church; one may/may not choose to associate with other believers in a local denomination, church or sect.
Theology (Christian) Definition: Originating from Greek (theos = god, logia = study), theology is the “Study of God,” His nature and relation to the world as it is revealed in the Bible. It broadly refers to the systematic study, interpretation and understanding of the divine, religious beliefs, and practices across various faiths. Virtually all religions contain theology, such as Islamic theology or Jewish theology.
Doctrine: simply means teaching or instruction. Biblical doctrine is the essential body of teaching derived from Scripture, relative to what the Bible affirms about God, humanity, salvation, and the world. Generally, a Statement of Doctrine includes a brief summary of the following twelve beliefs: God, Bible as standard of authority, Jesus, Holy Spirit, Man & Sin, Angels (holy & fallen), Salvation, Believers’ responsibility, Assembly/church, ministers/evangelism, ordinances (baptism & communion), after life (Heaven/Hell); Last Things (end of world, Jesus’ 2nd coming, Judgment Day).
Orthodox: When capitalized, the word Orthodox refers to the Eastern Orthodox Church; when it is lower-case, orthodox refers to general adherence to mainstream or traditional Christian doctrine, e.g. the divinity of Jesus, the trinity, creation, resurrection, Jesus’ return, etc.
Denominations: Some friends and workers claim their church is not a denomination and state they are “nondenominational” or “undenominational.” However, by definition, the 2x2s ARE a denomination, although not an officially worldwide registered one.
A denomination is a distinct, established religious group/body/church within the World Religion of Christianity. It is a large group of congregations united under a common faith and organized under a single administrative and legal hierarchy, identifiable by traits such as a name, peculiar history, organization, leadership, theological doctrine, worship style and a founder/s.
Denomination is a secular and neutral term usually associated with mainstream Christianity. A denomination is not a religion Most Christian denominations self-describe as Churches.
Most denominations started as small sects. Usually, a denomination has been in existence for many years and has widespread membership geographically. Examples of denominations are Lutheran, Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, Episcopal, etc. There are several hundred Christian denominations in the US alone, small to large. These denominations may be further sub-divided.
Churches: A distinction is made between the Christian local churches and the universal church. Generally, local churches are assemblies of members from various denominations and independent religious groups that have their own clergy, meeting places and distinctive doctrines/teachings.
Ecclesia/ekklesia: In the New Testament KJV, the Greek word ekklesia (Strong’s #1577) is translated 115 times as church and 3 times as assembly (Acts 19). It literally means a body of believers; a called-out or summoned assembly of people who profess faith in and allegiance to Christ for a common purpose. Ekklesia (1) applies to a local assembly; (2) designates the universal church; and (3) it is Gods’ congregation. Jesus only used the word twice (Mat 16:18; 18:17).
Ekklesia (Strong’s #1577) has been inaccurately translated “church” in the KJV. The true meaning of the Greek word is English words, such as congregation, assembly and community. In 1604, King James commissioned a group of Bible scholars to translate a new Bible into English, using the Bishop’s Bible for their base. It would become known as the King James Version (aka KJV), published in 1611. One of the King’s specific guiding rules to the translators was that the Greek noun ecclesia was to be translated as church (and not congregation as it was in the Old Testament). In the Old Testament, the Hebrew word for congregation/s was translated 367 times to describe an assembly/gathering of people, Israelites. and one time in the New Testament (Acts 13:43).
Read: http://www.kingdomlife.org/blog/category/ecclesia/
https://petergoeman.com/15-rules-behind-the-making-of-the-kjv/
https://thekingsbible.com/Library/InstructionsToTranslators
Clergy: Those who performs pastoral functions in a Christian church, e.g. preachers, pastors, ministers, evangelists, clergymen, teachers, missionaries.
Laity/Layman/Layperson: Ordinary (lay) people, members of the church, including deacons, elders, bishops—as distinct from the clergy.
Church Structure–Five-Fold Ministry Leadership (Eph 4:11-13): And He Himself gave some to be apostles, some prophets, some evangelists, and some pastors and teachers, for the equipping of the saints for the work of ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ, till we all come to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to a perfect man, to the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ.
These five roles are designed to equip believers for ministry, build up the body of Christ, and foster unity and spiritual maturity. The cornerstone work of the twelve apostles and prophets upon which the foundation of the church was built is complete (Eph 2:2). The law and the prophets were until John: since that time the kingdom of God is preached (Luke 16:16).
The remaining roles of pastors, teachers and evangelists are ongoing in the church. Some workers state their occupations as evangelist or missionary.
The government styles of churches and denominations vary regarding major decisions. An autonomous church is self-governing and independent. A non-autonomous church functions under the authority of an external, higher governing body, rather than making independent decisions.
In Churches with authoritarian governments, the authority resides with one person or a small elite group. It is a top-down, hierarchical system where power is concentrated in a single leader or small elite group (oligarchy), often demanding unquestioned obedience and restricting the decision-making role of laity. It typically features centralized authority, lack of accountability mechanisms, and may use spiritual fear to enforce conformity.
The 19th century witnessed a plethora of new religious movements, sects and cults being formed. Some were breakaways/schisms from existing churches. Some claimed to be reforms of traditional churches (John Calvin, Presbyterian; churches with word reformed in their names). The Restoration Movement (aka the Stone-Campbell Movement) began in America with the goal of restoring the primitive New Testament church (Church of Christ, Christian Church, Disciples of Christ). Still other newly invented Christian movements were founded by individual/s and did not evolve out of a previously existing church, sect, denomination.
Evangelical Christianity often centers on sola scriptura (Latin for “by Scripture alone”), emphasizing the Bible as the supreme authority, a personal conversion experience, and a direct, personal relationship with Jesus, leading to distinct practices and church structures. Evangelicalism includes a variety of denominations.
Christian Fundamentalist Churches in America are a diverse group of conservative Protestant congregations who emphasize biblical inerrancy and take biblical accounts literally (creation, etc.). They typically emphasize five core Fundamentals as foundational: virgin birth, deity of Christ, substitutionary atonement, bodily resurrection, the authenticity of miracles). They often have strict codes of conduct (no dancing, movies, alcohol, etc.), practice cultural separatism and distrust others’ beliefs. Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism overlap in some areas. Fundamentalism is a more specific, stricter separatist group than Evangelicalism, which is broader and more diverse. Some place the 2x2s in this group.
Sects: A Sect is a smaller group that is an offshoot of an established larger religious group, often with distinct beliefs or practices that differ from the mainstream Christianity (Amish, Seventh Day Adventist). Some Sects grow and evolve into denominations. The word Sect is not derogatory—there is no stigma attached to it. It merely denotes a group or party. In the Book of Acts, Paul mentions the sects of the Pharisees, Sadducees, Nazarenes. However, there are safe and unsafe Sects. Some Sects may have cultic characteristics or features—more or less—but are not cults.
Cults: The word cult is problematic because it is ambiguous and has no official definition. Various scholars define it somewhat differently, with no ultimate authority over its definition.
Encyclopedia Britannica defines cult as: The word ‘cult’ has been most commonly used as a pejorative term for a religious group that falls outside the mainstream and, by implication, engages in questionable activities.
On hearing the word cult, many think of notorious groups profiled in the news who severely abuse members and/or who threaten violence, such as Jonestown (South America), Branch Davidians (Waco), or Heaven’s Gate (California). No Question! While the word cult is correctly applied to them, these are exceptional extreme cults.
Others apply the label cult to more passive, law-abiding, religious groups. While the term cult is often associated with religiosity, it also describes secular organizations whose members employ coercive control, charismatic leadership and high commitment demands.
The meaning of “cult” may depend on the context, perspective and approach of the person using the term. Prior to hiring a therapist, it might be helpful to learn the therapist’s approach to, experience with, perspective on, or definition of cults.
NOTE: In conversing about cults, do not assume that your definition matches your counterpart’s definition of “cult.”
Cultic Elements, Features or Markers
There are three main scholarly approaches to defining cults: theological, psychological, and sociological. Each approach identifies somewhat different elements, features or markers for what constitutes a cult, and some may overlap.
1) Theological Approach: A number of new cults developed in the USA in the 1960s and earlier. In most early books on the subject, any religious group that was heretical or radically UNorthodox was labeled a cult. In other words, Christian orthodoxy was the criteria.
Orthodox: The word orthodox comes from the Greek. It means correct belief or right doctrine/worship. It is used to describe the generally accepted doctrines and practices of something as right, true, established and approved, especially in religion. It may refer to whole communities that believe and uphold biblical doctrines, e.g. Orthodox Jews, Orthodox Christians, Orthodox Christianity, Orthodox Christian Churches.
Heresy: The primary opposite of orthodoxy is heresy. In a Christian context, heresies are ideas, doctrines or theories that strongly contradict or deviate from established, accepted faith beliefs. Whereas orthodoxy represents adherence to established mainstream Christian beliefs. Markers of a cult under the theological approach are churches that are exclusive (the “only right church”), non-trinitarian, and revolve around a self-proclaimed prophet/founder with a special revelation/truth. Their doctrine is ambiguous, their government is authoritarian and questions are discouraged. They practice legalism, information control and member isolation. Salvation is by human achievement, i.e. is works-based (as opposed to faith/grace-based). There may be other markers, depending on perspective.
Other terms Christians use to describe groups whose beliefs and practices deviate significantly from mainstream Christian doctrine and orthodoxy are: Aberrant Christian groups, Totalistic Aberrant Christian Organizations (T.A.C.O.s), high-demand/control religious communities, toxic faiths, churches that abuse, unsafe sects, etc. Typically, these groups claim a Christian identity.
Some theologian cult experts are:
Roger E. Olson (Unsafe Sects: Understanding Religious Cults. See Two by Twos, p.19)
David Johnston & Jeff VanVondreren (Subtle Power of Spiritual Abuse)
Stephen Arterburn & Jack Felton (Toxic Faith; Faith that Hurts—Faith that Heals)
Dr. J. Gordon Melton (Encyclopedia of American Religions; includes The Two-By-Twos)
2) Psychological (mental health) Approach: Psychologists focus on the mental and emotional effects of religions… For most psychologists and counselors, a religious group is a cult to the extent that it uses manipulative means to recruit and control members, and to the extent that members find it difficult to cope with life outside the group and stay in it out of fear or live in a state of confusion or fear after leaving it (Roger Olson, pp. 3, 5).
Some psychologist/mental health cult experts are:
Dr. Michael D. Langone (Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse)
Dr. Margaret T. Singer (Cults in our Midst)
Robert J. Lifton was a pioneer in study of psychology in cult, totalism and thought reform/brainwashing (Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism)
Dr. Steven Hassan (Combating Cult Mind Control) BITE Model of Authoritarian Control
3) Sociological Approach: Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices and organizational forms of religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology. In Western nations, the study of new religions became a distinct field in the 1970s that emerged in response to growing public concerns.
For sociologists, the cult label is based on a group’s methods and behaviors—not on its beliefs. Generally, sociologists define a cult as a group or a relationship that stifles individuality and critical thinking, uses coercive control, requires intense commitment and obedience to a person and/or an ideology, and restricts or eliminates personal autonomy in favor of the cult’s worldview and the leader’s wants and needs.
Typically, sociologists reserve the word cult for religious groups that are violent or potentially violent; practice or condone abuse, especially sexual abuse within the group; and are not transparent or accountable to their members.
Many modern sociologists and researchers now prefer the neutral alternative term new religious movement (NRM) or Alternative Religious Movement to describe groups previously called cults. The term new religious movement has been applied to all new faiths that have arisen worldwide—even over the past several centuries—that have a peripheral place (fringe) within the dominant religious culture. Aside from being “fringe,” NRMs do not share a set of particular attributes. NRMs are also called high demand/control religious communities.
Some sociologist cult experts are:
Dr. Ronald M. Enroth (Churches that Abuse; p. 133-136, 2x2s
Dr. Janja Lalich (Take Back Your Life: Recovering from Cults and Abusive; and
Escaping Utopia: Growing Up in a Cult, Getting Out, and Starting Over)
Dr. Bryan R. Wilson (forward and frequently quoted in Secret Sect by Doug & Helen Parker; author of The Social Impact of New Religious Movements)
Dr. David G. Bromley (Religion and the Social Order – Sex, Lies and Sanctity: Religion and Deviance in Contemporary North America)
Benton Johnson (Christians in Hiding: The ‘No Name’ Sect, pp. 37-55.
https://tellingthetruth.info/publications_index/johnsonbenton.php
4) Journalists’ Approach: In popular use, the term cult has accumulated a strong negative connotation and is often used to cast aspersions on a religious group’s validity as a form of religious practice. It is commonly used to label any religious group someone considers strange or weird. While academics prefer the term new religious movement to avoid stigma, journalists often stick with the word cult to emphasize the harm, coercion or abuse occurring within the group. Some Journalist, reporters and authors also incorrectly refer to religions, sects, cults as synonyms.
Common Characteristics Identified Across Disciplines
Regardless of whether the analysis is theological, psychological, or sociological, many scholars and clinicians note that groups commonly described as cults tend to share a cluster of recognizable characteristics. While no single feature is determinative, the presence of several of these elements can signal a high-control or cultic environment. These characteristics may include:
- Authoritarian leadership centered on a charismatic or absolute authority figure whose teachings or directives are not open to meaningful challenge.
- Exclusivity and absolutism, including claims of possessing the sole truth, the only valid path to salvation, or unique access to special knowledge or revelation.
- Suppression of dissent and critical thinking, with questioning discouraged, reframed as disloyalty, or punished directly or indirectly.
- Information control, including restriction of outside sources, reframing of contradictory information, or use of insider language that shapes perception.
- Behavioral control and high demands, such as strict rules governing personal relationships, time, finances, appearance, or life decisions.
- Emotional and psychological manipulation, including use of guilt, shame, fear, love-bombing, or withdrawal of approval to influence compliance.
- Isolation, whether physical, social, or psychological, that separates members from outside relationships, perspectives, or support systems.
- Dependency on the group or leader, fostering the belief that well-being, identity, or salvation depends on continued loyalty and participation.
- Us-versus-them worldview, portraying outsiders as dangerous, misguided, inferior, or spiritually deficient.
- Difficulty leaving, whether due to fear of spiritual, relational, or psychological consequences, or because of practical barriers created by the group.
- Lack of transparency or accountability, particularly in leadership decision-making, finances, or handling of misconduct within the group.
Scholars generally emphasize that these characteristics exist on a continuum. The more extensively a group exhibits these features, and the more they function together to restrict autonomy and elevate control, the more likely the group is to be described as cultic in structure or practice.
CAUTION: Claiming that someone’s church or belief system is a cult is likely to offend, end the conversation and possibly create irreconcilable differences, estrangement and loss of relationship. Be careful about labeling any religious group as a cult without investigating their beliefs and practices.In attempting to open a discussion with someone about cults, keep in mind that some are informed, some uninformed and some misinformed. It’s respectful to first discover just how knowledgeable they are about the subject. What is their definition, understanding (and its source) and experience concerning cults. Do they personally know someone directly associated with a cult? (or is their knowledge just hearsay or from the news?) Then perhaps gently correct errors and discuss general cultic features, elements, markers.
NOTE: The scope of this study/essay is not intended to be all-inclusive concerning the subject of cults. Some churches consistently referred to as cults are Mormons, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Scientology and Christian Science. For further details, there are many published books that examine cults.
A good understanding is the surest way to avoid a misunderstanding.
Heathen/Gentile: A heathen is everyone who is not a Jew (Gentile). Paul went to the heathen (Gentiles) and the other apostles to the circumcision (Jews) Galatians 2:9.
Pagan: From a Christian viewpoint, pagans are heathens who worship many (false) gods or idols, characterized as idolatrous, polytheistic (many gods), and practice rituals contrary to Christianity.
Legalism: Webster’s Online Dictionary: Strict conformity to the letter of the law rather than its spirit. In Webster’s specialty definitions: Legalism is a pejorative term in Christian theology referring to the imposition of excessive conformity to religious rules of behavior.
Legalism is the belief that salvation comes through Jesus’ sacrifice PLUS human effort, i.e. following specific rules, traditions or behaviors as if they are divine commands. It replaces the guidance of the Holy Spirit with the rules of men. Jesus condemned this practice: Why do you transgress the commandment of God by your tradition?… In vain do they worship me, teaching as doctrines the commandments of men (Matthew 15:3-9). Traditions of men refers to nonessential practices the Bible does not explicitly command, endorse, or forbid. Traditions are man-made, extra-biblical rules that have no eternal consequences—they are men’s choices or preferences. Paul warned against legalism in Colossians 2:20-23
Highly recommended book: Unsafe Sects: Understanding Religious Cults by Roger E. Olson (See “Two by Two,” p. 19) Order on Amazon: https://amzn.to/4b4ceTj
TruthSpeak: Dictionary of 2×2 Terminology https://ex2x2.info/2025/07/28/2×2-dictionary/
Basic Bible Study Tools:
Exegesis and Eisegesis are two opposing methods of interpreting Bible texts. Exegesis means drawing out the meaning of a text, the author’s intention to communicate. Eisegesis means reading into the text one’s own preconceived ideas, beliefs or biases. The key difference lies in intent. Exegesis allows Scripture to speak for itself, while Eisegesis misuses Scripture to support their personal views. Examples: What does the passage actually say? vs. How can I make this passage support what I already believe
Online Resources: Bible Gateway.com, BlueLetterBible.org, BibleHub.com
Bible Dictionary – Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Biblical Words by W. E. Vine, Merrill F. Unger, William White Jr.
Vine’s Dictionary lists English biblical words in alphabetical order and explains the various Greek or Hebrew terms behind them, often using Strong’s numbers.
Harmony of the Gospels, also called Gospels Parallels
A Harmony of the Gospels arranges the accounts of Jesus’ life from the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John) into a single, chronological narrative or parallel columns, providing a side-by-side comparison of the distinct perspectives and details in each, providing the full picture of the same event. They are available for various Bible translations.
To determine the basic meaning of Bible words, one must go back and research its original Hebrew and Greek languages that have been translated by certain English terms.
Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible by James Strong. The Old Testament was written in Hebrwe and the New Testament in Greek and Aramaic. Strong’s Concordance shows the KJV original language of the word (Hebrew/Greek) behind most English words and assigns a corresponding number to it. Specific original-language words may be traced to show all the English translation of the same source word. It assigns a number to every original language word, allowing its meaning to be determined without knowledge of the ancient alphabet.
A Greek word may be translated with several English words; and an English word may be translated with several Greek words. For example, in John 21:15-17, Jesus asks Peter three times “do you love me?”However, Jesus uses two different Greek words for love—agape (self-sacrificial love, Strong’s #25, vs 15-16) and phileo (affectionate/brotherly love, Strong’s #5368, vs 17).
Strong’s numbering system has become the universal standard. Many Bible study tools use/integrate Strong’s numbers into their text for instant reference, e.g. the Bible Hub Interlinear, Blue Letter Bible, Vine’s Expository Dictionary and Hebrew-Greek Key Study Bibles
Revised February 16, 2026